Iterambere ryikirahure

Ukurikije amateka yiterambere, amateka ashobora kugabanywamo ibirahure bya kera, ikirahure gakondo, ikirahure gishya nikirahure kizaza.

(1) Mu mateka yikirahure cya kera, ibihe bya kera mubisanzwe bivuga ibihe byubucakara. Mu mateka y'Ubushinwa, ibihe bya kera birimo na Shijian. Kubwibyo, ikirahure cya kera muri rusange bivuga ikirahuri cyakozwe mubwami bwa Qing. Nubwo nayo yigana uyumunsi, irashobora kwitwa gusa ibirahure byavunitse, mubyukuri nimpimbano yikirahure cya kera.

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. gutegura, gutunganya, gukora no gushyira mubikorwa. Nibikoresho byubuhanga buhanitse hamwe nubwoko bwinshi, umusaruro muke no kuzamura byihuse, nkibirahure bibitse optique, ibirahuri bitatu-byerekanwa byikirahure, umwobo wogutwikira ibirahuri nibindi.

(4) Biragoye gutanga ibisobanuro nyabyo kubirahure bizaza. Igomba kuba ikirahure gishobora gutezwa imbere mugihe kizaza ukurikije icyerekezo cyiterambere ryubumenyi cyangwa guhanura. Ntakibazo ikirahure cya kera, ikirahure gakondo, ikirahure gishya cyangwa ikirahure kizaza, byose bifite aho bihurira numuntu kugiti cye. Byose ni amorphous solide hamwe nubushyuhe bwikirahure. Nyamara, imiterere ihinduka hamwe nigihe, ni ukuvuga, hariho itandukaniro mumikorere yimbere ninyuma mubihe bitandukanye: urugero, ikirahuri gishya mukinyejana cya 20 kizahinduka ikirahuri gakondo mukinyejana cya 21; Urundi rugero ni uko ikirahuri gito cyari ubwoko bushya bwikirahure muri 1950 na 1960, ariko ubu byahindutse ibicuruzwa byinshi kandi byubaka; Mu buryo nk'ubwo, ikirahure cya fotonike ni ibikoresho bishya byo gukora ubushakashatsi no gukora ibigeragezo. Mu myaka mike, irashobora kuba ikirahuri gikoreshwa cyane.

Urebye iterambere ryibirahure, bifitanye isano rya bugufi nubukungu bwa politiki nubukungu byabaturage muri kiriya gihe. Gusa hamwe niterambere ryimibereho niterambere ryubukungu birashobora gutera imbere. Nyuma yo gushingwa Ubushinwa bushya, cyane cyane kuva ivugurura no gufungura, Ubushinwa bwasohoye ibirahuri binini, ibirahuri bya buri munsi, ibirahuri bya fibre n’ibirahure bya optique biza ku mwanya wa mbere ku isi. Mu mpera z'umwaka wa 2008, umubare w'itumanaho rya optique wa kabili wageze kuri kilometero 6.76, kandi ubushobozi bwa optique n'urwego rwa tekiniki byari ku isonga ry'isi.

Iterambere ryibirahure naryo rifitanye isano rya bugufi nibikenewe na societe, bizamura iterambere ryikirahure. Ikirahuri cyakoreshejwe cyane cyane nkibikoresho, kandi ibirahuri bibara igice kinini cyibisohoka mubirahure. Nyamara, mu Bushinwa bwa kera, tekinoroji yo gukora ibikoresho byo mu bwoko bwa ceramic yateye imbere ugereranije, ubuziranenge bwari bwiza, kandi gukoresha byari byiza. Ntibyari nkenerwa cyane guteza imbere ibirahuri bitamenyerewe, kuburyo ikirahuri cyagumye mumitako yigana imitako nubuhanzi, bityo bikagira ingaruka kumikurire rusange yikirahure; Mu burengerazuba ariko, abantu bashishikajwe no kubona ibirahuri bibonerana, divayi n'ibindi bikoresho, biteza imbere iterambere ry'ibikoresho by'ibirahure. Muri icyo gihe, mugihe cyo gukoresha ibirahuri mugukora ibikoresho bya optique nibikoresho bya chimique muburengerazuba kugirango biteze imbere siyanse yubushakashatsi, uruganda rukora ibirahuri mubushinwa ruri murwego rwa "kwigana jade", kuburyo bigoye kwinjira ibwami ya siyansi.

Hamwe niterambere ryubumenyi nikoranabuhanga, icyifuzo cyubwinshi nubwinshi bwibirahure bikomeje kwiyongera, kandi ubwiza, ubwizerwe nigiciro cyibirahure nabyo byitabwaho cyane. Gukenera ingufu, ibinyabuzima n’ibidukikije ku kirahure birarenze. Ikirahure kirasabwa kugira imikorere myinshi, umutungo muke ningufu nke, hamwe n’umwanda muke no kwangiza ibidukikije, Iterambere ryicyatsi nubukungu buke bwa karubone buri gihe icyerekezo cyiterambere ryinganda zikirahure. Nubwo ibisabwa byiterambere ryicyatsi bitandukanye mubyiciro bitandukanye byamateka, icyerekezo rusange ni kimwe. Mbere y’impinduramatwara mu nganda, umusaruro w’ibirahuri wakoreshaga inkwi nka lisansi, amashyamba yaraciwe, kandi ibidukikije byarangiritse: mu kinyejana cya 17, Ubwongereza bwabujije ikoreshwa ry’ibikoresho, bityo hakoreshwa itanura rikoreshwa n’amakara. Mu kinyejana cya 19, hashyizweho pisine nshya; mu kinyejana cya 20, iterambere ry'amashanyarazi ryatejwe imbere; mu kinyejana cya 21, hakoreshejwe uburyo budasanzwe bwo gushonga, ni ukuvuga, aho kugirango pisine gakondo kandi ibe ingenzi, gushonga module, gushonga kwibiza, gushiramo amazi, gusukura vacuum, gushiramo ingufu nyinshi plasma gushonga, nibindi. Muri byo, gushonga modular, gusobanura vacuum na gushonga kwa plasma beam byageragejwe mubikorwa. Gushonga muburyo bushingiye kubikorwa byo gushyushya mbere yikinyejana cya 20, bishobora kuzigama 6.5% bya lisansi. Mu 2004, isosiyete ya Owens Illinois yo muri Amerika yakoze ikizamini cy'umusaruro, kandi gukoresha ingufu z'uburyo gakondo bwo gushonga ni 7-5 w / KS. A, mugihe ingufu zikoreshwa mumashanyarazi ari 5 mu / kgam, Gukoresha ingufu birashobora gukizwa na 333%. Kubijyanye no gusobanura vacuum, yakozwe muri 20td ikigereranyo giciriritse gikungahaye, gishobora kugabanya gukoresha ingufu hafi 30%. Hashingiwe kubisobanuro bya vacuum, hashyizweho sisitemu izakurikiraho yo gushonga (NGMS) hamwe no gushonga byihuse, homogenisation hamwe nigitutu kibi.